Session Twenty-One, The First Station: Examining the Existence or Non-Existence of Intrinsic Dignity in the Human Being
Session Twenty-One
The First Station: Examining the Existence or Non-Existence of Intrinsic Dignity in the Human Being – The Foundations of the Intrinsic Dignity of the Human Being – The Second Category: 2. Divine Vicegerency – Four Possibilities Regarding the One Succeeded – The Object of Vicegerency – Divine Vicegerency: An Acquired Dignity, Not an Intrinsic One – Evidence
January 4, 2025
Summary of the Previous Session
The discussion concerned the second category of matters that may be examined as a foundation for the intrinsic dignity of the human being. In the previous session, we mentioned one matter from this category, namely the breathing of the divine spirit into the human being. The conclusion of the discussion regarding the first matter was that it cannot be accepted as a foundation for the intrinsic dignity of the human being.
2. Divine Vicegerency
The second matter is divine vicegerency. In a number of Qur’anic verses, reference is made to the issue of the human being’s divine vicegerency—that God, the Blessed and Exalted, has appointed the human being as a vicegerent upon the earth. Verse 30 of Sūrat al-Baqarah states: “And [mention] when your Lord said to the angels, ‘Indeed, I will make upon the earth a successive authority.’ They said, ‘Will You place upon it one who causes corruption therein and sheds blood, while we declare Your praise and sanctify You?’ He said, ‘Indeed, I know that which you do not know.'” (وَإِذْ قَالَ رَبُّكَ لِلْمَلَائِكَةِ إِنِّي جَاعِلٌ فِي الْأَرْضِ خَلِيفَةً قَالُوا أَتَجْعَلُ فِيهَا مَنْ يُفْسِدُ فِيهَا وَيَسْفِكُ الدِّمَاءَ وَنَحْنُ نُسَبِّحُ بِحَمْدِكَ وَنُقَدِّسُ لَكَ قَالَ إِنِّي أَعْلَمُ مَا لَا تَعْلَمُونَ). The issue of the human being’s divine vicegerency is mentioned in numerous verses and is beyond doubt. The verses that refer to the issue of vicegerency—whether in the singular form (khalīfa) or the plural form (khalā’if)—are several. One is the very verse we have recited. God, the Blessed and Exalted, states in verse 39 of Sūrat Fāṭir: “It is He who has made you successors upon the earth.” (هُوَ الَّذِي جَعَلَكُمْ خَلَائِفَ فِي الْأَرْضِ). Similar to this verse, the plural form is mentioned in Sūrat al-Anʿām, verse 165, and in Sūrat Yūnus, verse 14.
Ultimately, the human being has been appointed as a vicegerent upon the earth: “Indeed, I will make upon the earth a successive authority” (إِنِّي جَاعِلٌ فِي الْأَرْضِ خَلِيفَةً). The conferral of vicegerency is not a creational (takwīnī) matter. When God states that He has made the human being a vicegerent, it means that He has appointed the human being as His successor; the human species is not, by its very creation, the vicegerent of God. This requires an explanation, which we shall provide.
First, we must determine whose vicegerent the human being is; and second, in what this vicegerency consists—what the object of vicegerency is. For vicegerency means succession, and succession may pertain to various matters or may be on behalf of various persons. Here, two discussions are raised concerning vicegerency. Once these two discussions are clarified, we must then determine, first, whether this constitutes a dignity, and second, whether this dignity is intrinsic or not. Thus, in total, we shall have four discussions here.
Four Possibilities Regarding the One Succeeded
Concerning whose vicegerent and successor the human being is, four views or possibilities may be mentioned, each of which has, for the most part, its proponents.
The First Possibility
The first possibility is that the human being is the successor of the angels or the jinn—meaning that God made the human being the successor of the jinn who dwelt upon the earth and who engaged in the shedding of blood and corruption, to which the angels alluded: “Will You place upon it one who causes corruption therein and sheds blood?” (أَتَجْعَلُ فِيهَا مَنْ يُفْسِدُ فِيهَا وَيَسْفِكُ الدِّمَاءَ). However, it does not appear correct that the angels were the ones succeeded, since the matter of the shedding of blood and corruption cannot be attributed to them, for they were not given to the shedding of blood, bloodshed, or corruption.
Examination of the First Possibility
This possibility is rejected, for the following reasons:
First: The angels fundamentally do not have the disposition to dwell upon the earth, since angels are immaterial (mujarrad) beings, and the requirements of life in the material world and the realm of nature differ from those of immaterial spirits. Therefore, the dwelling of the angels upon the earth and their vicegerency upon the earth carries little meaning. That is, to say that angels previously existed upon the earth and that the human being now becomes their successor is unacceptable.
Second: Although the jinn, in this respect, have the capacity to live upon the earth, the requirements of their existence are nevertheless not fully consonant with life in the material world. The narrations and certain verses bear no correspondence with this possibility.
The Second Possibility
The second possibility or view is that, before the human being, there existed beings who lived upon the earth and who were given to the shedding of blood and corruption, and that God here states that He will make the human being their successor.
Examination of the Second Possibility
This possibility, too, can neither be affirmed nor reconciled with the context of these verses.
The Third Possibility
The third possibility is that the human being became the successor of other human beings who lived upon the earth before him and who were given to the shedding of blood and corruption; thus, the question posed by the angels was due to a precedent set by another group of human beings. This possibility has been mentioned in certain exegetical works, and perhaps some narrations corroborate it in a certain manner. Exegetes such as Shaykh al-Ṭūsī in al-Tibyān and al-Ṭabrisī in Majmaʿ al-Bayān have alluded to this possibility.
Examination of the Third Possibility
In light of the indications and evidence present within this very verse (to which we shall refer later), this possibility is rejected. Perhaps a smaller number of exegetes have inclined toward this possibility, while most hold the fourth view.
The Fourth Possibility
The fourth possibility, which is the prevailing view among Shīʿa and Sunnī exegetes, is that the human being becomes the successor of God upon the earth. “Indeed, I will make upon the earth a successive authority” (إِنِّي جَاعِلٌ فِي الْأَرْضِ خَلِيفَةً) means: I shall place a successor for Myself upon the earth. Ibn Masʿūd, who is among the earliest exegetes, narrated this, and after him most Shīʿa and Sunnī exegetical works have accepted it; there are also narrations on this matter. For instance, the author of Majmaʿ al-Bayān states explicitly: “By ‘the successor,’ Adam (peace be upon him) is intended, for he is the successor of God upon His earth” (أراد بالخلیفة آدم(ع) فهو خلیفة الله فی أرضه)—Adam is the successor of God upon the earth.
Examination of the Fourth Possibility
As stated, this possibility is accepted by the overwhelming majority of exegetes, and numerous pieces of evidence may be adduced for it from within this very verse, from certain other verses, and from the narrations. Among them are the following:
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When God stated, “Indeed, I will make upon the earth a successive authority” (إِنِّي جَاعِلٌ فِي الْأَرْضِ خَلِيفَةً), the angels submitted before God: “We declare Your praise and sanctify You” (وَنَحْنُ نُسَبِّحُ بِحَمْدِكَ وَنُقَدِّسُ لَكَ)—and yet You wish to appoint as Your own successor one who is given to the shedding of blood and corruption. This very understanding that the angels held, and which they submitted to God—that You are designating a successor for Yourself who is not only not given to praise and sanctification, and does not praise and sanctify You, but is also far from You—they meant to say: We are near to You; we possess the worthiness for vicegerency; how is the human being, who is given to bloodshed and corruption upon the earth, to be a successor for You? Thus, this perception and understanding of the angels is a piece of evidence and corroboration that the matter is one of divine vicegerency.
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What God stated in response to them—”And He taught Adam the names—all of them” (وَعَلَّمَ آدَمَ الْأَسْمَاءَ كُلَّهَا)—and then “Indeed, I know that which you do not know” (إِنِّي أَعْلَمُ مَا لَا تَعْلَمُونَ): God’s statement that He taught the human being the names is in the position of dispelling that objection and responding to the understanding the angels held. The angels say: We declare Your praise and sanctify You, and yet You wish to appoint upon the earth a successor who is such-and-such. God states: I know something that you do not know. This points to the distinctions and special characteristics of the human being—that the human being possesses certain things and capacities by which he can become the successor of God upon the earth.
Therefore, when God, the Exalted, states “Indeed, I will make upon the earth a successive authority” (إِنِّي جَاعِلٌ فِي الْأَرْضِ خَلِيفَةً), the intent in conferring vicegerency upon the human being was divine vicegerency—succession to God upon the earth.
Thus, the human being became the successor of God, not the successor of other beings—neither the jinn, nor the angels, nor previous human beings. This can be established by the indications mentioned and by certain narrations that have come regarding this verse (which I shall pass over).
Question:
Professor: The human being is the successor of God. As we said at the outset, there are several questions here that we must answer. One is: whose successor does he become? We have answered this; we said it means the successor of God.
The Object of Vicegerency
What does this vicegerency and succession mean? Or, in other words, what is the object of vicegerency? Vicegerency in what? Considering the existence of God, the Blessed and Exalted, and that He is the Absolute Good, the source of all perfections, the possessor of all perfections, the source of all effusions—that is, Absolute Effusion, Absolute Good, Absolute Perfection, and whatever we may state in describing the Essence and attributes of God—naturally, since there must be a likeness (sinkhiyya) between the successor and the one succeeded, the successor is one who, to the extent possible, possesses the attributes and characteristics of God, the Blessed and Exalted. If we hold the divine names and attributes to be a thousand or fewer, or thirty-odd attributes (given the disagreement that exists in this regard), then if the human being has become the successor and vicegerent of God, this means succession in these aspects, these names, and these attributes. Hence it is said that the Perfect Human Being is the manifestation of the divine names and attributes. No one will ever attain the Essence of God; the innermost reality of God’s Essence is incomprehensible. However, the divine names and attributes, His beauty (jamāl) and His majesty (jalāl), are realizable for the human being to the extent of contingent existence. That is, the human being can be generous (karīm), pardoning (ʿafuww), merciful (raḥīm), bountiful (jawād), given to liberality and giving, given to forbearance, magnanimous, an avenger (muntaqim), zealous (ghayūr), knowing (ʿālim), and powerful (qādir). That is, whatever is enumerated for God as names and attributes, the human being can possess of these characteristics to his own measure. That is, if the human being reaches this stage, he becomes the successor of God. For now, we are not concerned with potentiality and actuality. Your question, too, was what this divine vicegerency means. The question we raised from the outset was: what is the object of vicegerency? In what is the human being the successor and vicegerent of God, the Blessed and Exalted? I have stated that this vicegerency, to the extent of contingent existence, pertains to all of these divine names and attributes, except the Greatest Name (al-ism al-aʿẓam).
Divine Vicegerency: An Acquired Dignity, Not an Intrinsic One
But does this constitute a dignity for the human being? Without doubt, this is a dignity. Certainly, by virtue of having been appointed as a successor on God’s behalf, this is considered a dignity from God. When someone is appointed to the station of succession, it means that he has been esteemed and honored, and that rank, status, and standing have been accorded to him. That one should be appointed, from among all beings, as the successor of God—and that, too, by God Himself—is, without doubt, considered an honoring and esteeming. “It is He who has made you successors upon the earth” (هُوَ الَّذِي جَعَلَكُمْ خَلَائِفَ فِي الْأَرْضِ)—He made you His own successors upon the earth. It is entirely clear and evident that the conferral of vicegerency upon the human being is an honoring and esteeming on the part of God, the Blessed and Exalted.
These matters are clear, and we need not make any special effort to establish them.
But is this dignity intrinsic or acquired? Herein lies the whole discussion. Up to this point, the three points we have mentioned are essentially without dispute, and perhaps there is little disagreement concerning them. No one claims that the station of divine vicegerency is not a dignity for the human being; it is clear that it is a dignity. God has accorded this rank to the human being, such that no one denies the very principle of the human being’s vicegerency in relation to God. The principal matter is the fourth point: whether this dignity is intrinsic or acquired. The very fact that the human being’s vicegerency in relation to God is raised—does it mean that all human beings are actually the successors of God, or that they are capable of being divine successors? Here it appears that divine vicegerency is raised as an acquired dignity for the human being, not an intrinsic dignity.
First, we shall recall the meaning of acquired dignity, and then we shall state the evidence for it.
That God, the Blessed and Exalted, states that We have appointed the human being to the station of divine vicegerency and have made him Our successor upon the earth—this means that the human being, qua human being, possesses characteristics and capacities by virtue of which he has the aptitude for divine vicegerency, not that he is actually the successor of God. If he makes use of this aptitude—through will, choice, and action, acting in accordance with the directives of the prophets—he can attain the station of vicegerency. Of course, this also has degrees: the extent of adherence to religious directives, the extent of resolve and effort, and the resolve and will to bring this aptitude into actuality—all of these play a role. Because this aptitude exists in the human being, and he must move toward that destination by means of a roadmap, we say it is an acquired dignity. That is, it is not the case that we say that every person to whom the title of “human being” applies is actually the successor of God. Are I, you, and someone who lives in America or somewhere else and has no belief whatsoever in God—is he, too, the successor of God? Is someone who commits crimes, murder, bloodshed, and corruption also the successor of God? It is certainly meaningless to consider a bloodthirsty, corrupt killer the successor of God. Are we to regard as the successor of God one who is at the utmost distance and remoteness from God and who fundamentally arrays himself in opposition to God? The successor of God must possess a likeness to God.
However, all human beings have the readiness and aptitude, by making use of the capital of their primordial nature (fiṭra)—the inner inclination toward Absolute Perfection—by resisting the carnal soul, through effort, thought, and will, through will and intellect, and through the guidance of the prophets, the saints, and the guides, to move toward that original source of Absolute Perfection. Both inner capital and outer capital for attaining this destination have been placed at the human being’s disposal; the destination is known, and the capital is also known. Therefore, this aptitude has been raised for the human being.
Evidence
I have stated that this is not an intrinsic dignity; this matter—and the fact that it is an aptitude and not an actuality—can be established by these very verses.
The First Piece of Evidence
In verse 165 of Sūrat al-Anʿām, after raising the issue of vicegerency, reference is made to the issue of trial and the difference in the rank of human beings: “and has raised some of you above others in degrees [of rank] that He may try you through what He has given you.” (وَرَفَعَ بَعْضَكُمْ فَوْقَ بَعْضٍ دَرَجَاتٍ لِيَبْلُوَكُمْ فِي مَا آتَاكُمْ). This very trial and divine testing of the human being, raised after the issue of vicegerency, shows that vicegerency is not a creational matter; it is not the case that God made the human being a vicegerent by creational conferral. Had the human being become a vicegerent by creational conferral, then trial and the elevation of some above others would have been meaningless—it would have been like the saltiness of salt. Therefore, this is an acquired matter; it is not creational, yet the human being can attain this degree. The discussion of degrees and trial clearly conveys this.
A narration has also come regarding this very verse, on the authority of Imām al-Ṣādiq (peace be upon him), who states: “We do not say it is a single degree. Indeed, God says ‘degrees,’ some of them above others. The people excelled one another only through deeds.” (لَا نَقُولُ درجة وَاحِدَةٌ إِنَّ اللَّهَ يَقُولُ دَرَجَاتٌ بَعْضُهَا فَوْقَ بَعْضٍ إِنَّمَا تَفَاضَلَ الْقَوْمُ بِالْأَعْمَالِ)—the superiority of a people is by their own deeds. Thus, within this very verse there is a clear indication that this is an acquired dignity.
The Second Piece of Evidence
In verse 14 of Sūrat Yūnus, when the discussion of vicegerency is raised, it states: “that We may observe how you will do.” (لِنَنْظُرَ كَيْفَ تَعْمَلُونَ)—this is so that He may see what you do. Had they been actual vicegerents and had become vicegerents by creational conferral, it would naturally have been meaningless to say “that We may observe how you will do” (لِنَنْظُرَ كَيْفَ تَعْمَلُونَ), for it is evident how a vicegerent by creational conferral acts. That is, it is your own action that builds your future and determines your destiny.
The Third Piece of Evidence
In verse 39 of Sūrat Fāṭir, which refers to the issue of vicegerency, it states: “And whoever disbelieves—upon him is [the consequence of] his disbelief. And the disbelief of the disbelievers does not increase them in the sight of their Lord except in hatred; and the disbelief of the disbelievers does not increase them except in loss.” (فَمَنْ كَفَرَ فَعَلَيْهِ كُفْرُهُ وَلَا يَزِيدُ الْكَافِرِينَ كُفْرُهُمْ عِنْدَ رَبِّهِمْ إِلَّا مَقْتًا وَلَا يَزِيدُ الْكَافِرِينَ كُفْرُهُمْ إِلَّا خَسَارًا). Here it states very clearly that whoever disbelieves, his disbelief is upon himself; he could have chosen not to disbelieve. For one who disbelieves, not only is vicegerency meaningless in his case, but he becomes an enemy of God; one cannot be the successor of someone whose enemy he is. We cannot place disbelievers, oppressors, and those who have gone astray in the station of vicegerency. God states that those who chose this path have harmed themselves, have brought loss upon themselves, and all of this is upon themselves; that is, they could have refrained from reaching this point, refrained from moving along this path, and become the successors and vicegerents of God.
Therefore, as I noted at the outset, the issue of vicegerency has been established for the human being by legislative (tashrīʿī) conferral, not creational conferral; and its meaning is that the human being has the capacity for vicegerency, has the aptitude for vicegerency, and can make use of the inner and outer divine blessings and his own inner and outer capital to attain the station of vicegerency.
Question:
Professor: They are at the highest rank: “and has raised some of you above others in degrees [of rank] that He may try you through what He has given you.” (وَرَفَعَ بَعْضَكُمْ فَوْقَ بَعْضٍ دَرَجَاتٍ لِيَبْلُوَكُمْ فِي مَا آتَاكُمْ). Yes, but it has degrees. That is, it is possible for someone to attain elevation in certain attributes; the Perfect Human Being is, in fact, the manifestation of the names and attributes upon the earth; the Perfect Human Being is at the highest degree in all of these. Of course, even among them there is a difference in rank; certainly, there is a difference between the Prophet (peace be upon him and his family) and the Commander of the Faithful (peace be upon him); there is a difference between the Prophet (peace be upon him and his family) and the other prophets. This is based on the very statement of the Commander of the Faithful (peace be upon him), who, when he wishes to describe the Prophet (peace be upon him and his family), describes him in such a manner and places him at such a rank. Thus, these constitute aptitude.
Therefore, if the dignity of divine vicegerency for the human being is acquired and not intrinsic, then it is perishable and admits of realization or non-realization; it is an aptitude. Hence, it cannot be regarded as an intrinsic dignity for the human being. This pertains to the human being with faith, not the human being without faith; the human being without faith does not possess such a characteristic. It is possible for a human being, for certain reasons, not to be a believer—for instance, one who is given to generosity, like Ḥātim al-Ṭā’ī; in this respect he attains a certain nearness to God, and to that same measure God honors him. You observe what the Prophet (peace be upon him and his family) did, after the war, with the family of Ḥātim al-Ṭā’ī—merely on the grounds that they were his children. If their lack of faith is not out of obstinacy, then naturally it differs from one whose lack of faith is out of obstinacy. If a human being is given to magnanimity, he is near to God to that same measure; of course, everything is subject to thought and mind. But one who does not even partake of this attribute is one degree higher [in remoteness]. Therefore, the issue of vicegerency cannot serve as a foundation for intrinsic dignity.
Let me only state this point: that this vicegerency pertains to the human species, not to the individual human being; the Prophet Adam did not become a vicegerent on his own; rather, this aptitude has been provided for the human species.