Session Thirty-One, The Proofs of Inherent Human Dignit
Session Thirty-One
The Proofs of Inherent Human Dignity — The First Proof: The Qur’anic Verses — The First Verse — The Second Verse — The Third Verse
April 5, 2025
Summary of Previous Discussions
In the first part of our discussion of this governing principle (qāʿidah), we spoke of the foundations of the principle—that is, of what matters could constitute the foundation of inherent human dignity. In this connection, we enumerated two categories of distinctions: in the first category, we cited six distinctions, and in the second category, five. We stated that the first category of distinctions could be accepted as a foundation for inherent dignity, although this number might well be capable of consolidation, or of being reduced to one or two underlying matters. Setting aside the number of matters presented as the foundation of inherent dignity, it was, broadly speaking, established that certain distinctions belong specifically to the human being and constitute a favor particular to him from God, and can be accepted as an instance of honoring on God’s part directed toward the human being qua human being. The second category of distinctions constitutes the foundation of acquired dignity, not inherent dignity. The five matters set forth in that second category are, in fact, matters indicating the human being’s capacity to acquire particular forms of dignity; this dignity was termed “acquired dignity.” For each of these matters, in both the first and second categories, certain evidences were likewise cited.
The Proofs of Inherent Human Dignity
Were we to treat the terms “foundations” and “proofs” with a degree of latitude, we could, in fact, say that most of what we have stated previously—particularly with respect to the first category of distinctions—can likewise be reckoned as proof of inherent human dignity. In the literature and in various books, these two terms are at times used interchangeably; sometimes “foundations” is stated loosely while “proofs” is intended; at other times the two are used together, and at still other times only the term “proofs” is employed. With a more precise examination, of course, a distinction does exist between foundations and proofs. Accordingly, the greater part of what we have said thus far in our discussion of the foundations of inherent human dignity can, in fact, also be presented as proof, which I shall now indicate briefly and in summary form.
In any case, these foundations were set forth, and we stated that intellect, will and choice, innate disposition (fiṭrah), emotions and feelings, the power to subjugate other beings, and so forth, constitute the foundation of inherent dignity. We presented each of these along with supporting evidence; that is, these six matters constitute the foundation of inherent human dignity, and, in establishing them, we adduced evidence consisting chiefly of Qur’anic verses and, in some cases, traditions.
In the second stage, we likewise stated that these foundations entail, in fact, the establishment of certain rights for the human being qua human being. These rights are termed natural or innate (fiṭrī) rights. The conclusion of our discussion thus far has been this: on the one hand, the human being enjoys certain exclusive distinctions of which no other being partakes, and this constitutes an honoring; this distinction makes the human being possessed of dignity, honor, and greatness. As you observed, these matters encompass all human beings, whether unbeliever or Muslim—in contrast to the second category of distinctions, which does not pertain to all human beings. We stated that these matters give rise, in turn, to certain rights affirmed for the human being qua human being. The first category of distinctions causes the human being to enjoy, for instance, the right to life, the right to freedom, the right to choice, and certain other rights. The distinctions set forth in the second category establish certain special rights for particular human beings—for Muslims and believers, those who have placed the crown of piety and dignity upon their heads and have not departed from the garb of servitude to God Almighty.
Now that the discussion of proofs is before us, we must examine everything that can be put forward as proof of inherent human dignity, and we are obliged to pass through this section with greater speed, since, as I have said, many of these verses were already indicated in our discussion of the foundations—the very same verses being reckoned, too, as proof of inherent dignity—and since we have little time remaining before the end of the academic year; a great deal of discussion still remains.
Naturally, when proof is under discussion, we must turn to the Book, the Sunnah, consensus (ijmāʿ), and reason.
In this matter, we cannot cite anything by way of consensus, since neither its minor premise nor its major premise can be appealed to here. As for the major premise, this is because such a consensus does not concern a subsidiary matter or a juridical ruling, but rather a doctrinal matter outside the sphere of subsidiary rulings, and consensus carries no authority outside the sphere of juridical rulings. As for the minor premise, as you have observed, the fact is that considerable disagreement exists; perhaps the majority deny inherent dignity for the human being, though admittedly some accept it. This proof, then, falls away of its own accord.
Three further proofs remain: the Book, the Sunnah, and reason. We must examine which verses of the Qur’an, and which traditions, we may invoke, as well as the proof of reason.
The First Proof: The Verses
Numerous verses of the Qur’an indicate inherent human dignity, whether explicitly or by apparent sense, whether by direct correspondence (bi-al-muṭābaqah) or by implication (bi-al-iltizām).
The First Verse
The clearest verse from which inherent human dignity may be derived is verse 70 of Sūrat al-Isrāʾ: “And We have certainly honored the children of Adam and carried them on the land and sea and provided for them of the good things and preferred them over much of Our creation with [definite] preference” (وَلَقَدْ كَرَّمْنَا بَنِي آدَمَ وَحَمَلْنَاهُمْ فِي الْبَرِّ وَالْبَحْرِ وَرَزَقْنَاهُمْ مِنَ الطَّيِّبَاتِ وَفَضَّلْنَاهُمْ عَلَى كَثِيرٍ مِمَّنْ خَلَقْنَا تَفْضِيلًا). This verse states that We have honored and dignified the children of Adam, and have carried them, upon both land and sea, on swift and capable conveyances, and have given them every variety of pure and wholesome provision, and have granted the human being preference over many of the beings that We have created.
Concerning this verse, in our discussion of the first item among the foundations of inherent dignity—namely, intellect—we presented certain matters by way of a first piece of evidence; I do not wish to repeat those matters here. Four aspects were addressed, in summary form, in our discussion of this verse; even there, admittedly, we did not treat the matter at great length. Contrary to the position held by many who maintain that this verse does not indicate inherent human dignity, we hold that the verse does indicate it. Among the exegetes—whether Sunni or Shīʿī—many hold that the verse indicates acquired dignity rather than inherent dignity; the reasoning for this is that the verse speaks of preference (tafḍīl). It first states that We have honored human beings; the direction of this honoring is also clear—namely, that We made him capable of subjugating land and sea. It then states, “and preferred them over much of Our creation with [definite] preference” (وَفَضَّلْنَاهُمْ عَلَى كَثِيرٍ مِمَّنْ خَلَقْنَا تَفْضِيلًا), which, in fact, points to the criterion of dignity—namely, piety and servitude to God. According to this view, the human being who is given to polytheism, unbelief, disobedience, transgression, and hypocrisy possesses no dignity; but should he place the crown of piety, Islam, and faith upon his own head, he becomes possessed of dignity—as in the verse, “Indeed, the most noble of you in the sight of God is the most righteous of you” (إِنَّ أَكْرَمَكُمْ عِنْدَ اللَّهِ أَتْقَاكُمْ).
Question:
Response: We have noted that many hold this view; it may well be that this perspective—namely, the non-existence of inherent dignity—has found reflection in jurisprudence as well. Certain corroborating evidences and indications have likewise been cited for this perspective, both from the verse itself and from other verses and traditions, which we have, in certain instances, raised in the form of certain objections and difficulties, and to which we have offered responses; I do not wish to enter into this discussion at great length here.
In our view, this verse indicates inherent human dignity. In this connection, the late ʿAllāmah Ṭabāṭabāʾī states: “The intent of the verse is to set forth the condition of humankind in general, disregarding the particular divine dignity, nearness, and pure spiritual excellence belonging specifically to some of them; the discourse thus encompasses the polytheists, the unbelievers, and the transgressors—for otherwise the sense of bestowing favor and of reproach would not be sustained” (الْمُرَادُ بِالْآيَةِ بَيَانُ حَالِ لِعَامَّةِ الْبَشَرِ مَعَ الْغَضِّ عَمَّا يَخْتَصُّ بِهِ بَعْضُهُمْ مِنَ الْكَرَامَةِ الْخَاصَّةِ الْإِلَهِيَّةِ وَالْقُرْبِ وَالْفَضِيلَةِ الرُّوحِيَّةِ الْمَحْضَةِ، فَالْكَلَامُ يَعُمُّ الْمُشْرِكِينَ وَالْكُفَّارَ وَالْفُسَّاقَ وَإِلَّا لَمْ يَتِمَّ مَعْنَى الِامْتِنَانِ وَالْعِتَابِ). This verse, then, describes the condition of humankind in general, setting aside the particular divine dignity. The discourse accordingly encompasses all polytheists, unbelievers, and transgressors; and were it not to encompass all of them, the very sense of bestowing favor and of reproach would altogether fall away. For he regards the verse as conveying a bestowal of favor while simultaneously containing an element of reproach; it states, on the one hand, that God has bestowed a favor upon the human being—”And We have certainly honored the children of Adam” (وَلَقَدْ كَرَّمْنَا بَنِي آدَمَ)—speaking of the honoring of all human beings; the children of Adam have all been made the recipients of this dignity. We have already noted that the statement, “and carried them on the land and sea and provided for them of the good things” (وَحَمَلْنَاهُمْ فِي الْبَرِّ وَالْبَحْرِ وَرَزَقْنَاهُمْ مِنَ الطَّيِّبَاتِ), which refers to the subjugation of land and sea and to the capacity to harness and employ all beings, although it is, on its apparent sense, reckoned as the direction of the dignity in question, raises the question: what, in the midst of all this, has enabled the human being to harness and subjugate everything upon land and sea? What has enabled him to benefit from wholesome provisions? It is the human capacity for rational thought and reflection that constitutes the source of all these distinctions. That is, it is as though God Almighty wishes to state that We have honored the human being by means of the faculty of intellect and the power of reflection, such that, by employing his rational and reflective faculty, he is able, upon both land and sea, to mount swift conveyances and to make use of wholesome and pure provisions.
This power and this faculty, itself the source of the human being’s other powers and distinctions, exists in all human beings. We have noted that “intellect” carries two meanings: one, the faculty of reflection, thought, and the discovery of the unknown; the other, that “by which the All-Merciful is worshipped and paradise is earned” (مَا عُبِدَ بِهِ الرَّحْمَٰنُ وَاكْتُسِبَ بِهِ الْجِنَانُ). Intellect in the first sense exists in all human beings, whether unbeliever or Muslim, and constitutes a distinction belonging to the human being of which no other being partakes. Even the jinn, who possess a measure of consciousness and awareness, lack the capacity to discover the unknown; the capacity to proceed, by means of what is already known, to the discovery of the unknown, is not available to them. We have likewise addressed the matter of preference (tafḍīl), noting that both “honoring” and “preference” are employed in this verse, and we have indicated the difference between the two.
The conclusion of our discussion of this verse is that, in light of the points already stated, this verse most certainly indicates inherent human dignity. Certain objections and difficulties exist here, admittedly, some of which we have already answered, and some of which remain open to further discussion and examination—for instance, how this verse, if it indicates inherent dignity, can be reconciled with certain other verses indicating that the human being is ignorant, withholding, unjust, and even more astray than the animals; we have already answered this.
We hold, then, that this verse indicates inherent dignity, and even certain other exegetes (besides the late ʿAllāmah, to whom we have referred) have drawn this very conclusion—even those who have made no reference to the matter of intellect, and who have, for the most part, taken the direction of the dignity in question to be the subjugation of beings upon land and sea, yet who have nonetheless regarded this as a particular distinction belonging to the human being. Some, admittedly, hold that, although the matter of the subjugation of land and sea is indeed particular to the human being, this does not constitute inherent dignity for him; we have responded to this objection as well.
The first verse indicating inherent human dignity, then, is verse 70 of Sūrat al-Isrāʾ. As I have said, I am obliged to present these matters in summary, list-like fashion and to pass through them quickly. In any case, this verse explicitly and by direct correspondence indicates inherent dignity.
The Second Verse
We cited several pieces of evidence for the matter of intellect. Our second piece of evidence was verses 4 through 6 of Sūrat al-Tīn: “We have certainly created man in the best of stature; then We return him to the lowest of the low; except those who believe and do righteous deeds, for they will have a reward uninterrupted” (لَقَدْ خَلَقْنَا الْإِنْسَانَ فِي أَحْسَنِ تَقْوِيمٍ * ثُمَّ رَدَدْنَاهُ أَسْفَلَ سَافِلِينَ * إِلَّا الَّذِينَ آمَنُوا وَعَمِلُوا الصَّالِحَاتِ فَلَهُمْ أَجْرٌ غَيْرُ مَمْنُونٍ). This verse refers to the excellent creation of the human being. Considerable discussion has taken place as to the criterion of “the best of stature,” and as to why God Almighty employed this particular expression; some have construed “the best of stature” in terms of the human being’s outward features—his walking upright on two feet, his erect posture, his comely countenance, and matters of this kind. The sound view, however, is that the most excellent of creations, with respect to the human being, refers to the intellect; it is for this very reason that we have cited this verse as evidence for the matter of intellect, and as indicating that this is a favor particular to the human being, and that the human being has attained inherent dignity by virtue of his intellect. Certain traditions, too, may be cited here in corroboration.
The Third Verse
The third verse indicating inherent human dignity is verses 1 through 2 of Sūrat al-Insān: “Has there come upon man a period of time when he was not a thing [even] mentioned? Indeed, We created man from a sperm-drop mixture; We test him; and We made him hearing and seeing” (هَلْ أَتَى عَلَى الْإِنسَانِ حِينٌ مِّنَ الدَّهْرِ لَمْ يَكُن شَيْئًا مَّذْكُورًا * إِنَّا خَلَقْنَا الْإِنْسَانَ مِنْ نُطْفَةٍ أَمْشَاجٍ نَبْتَلِيهِ فَجَعَلْنَاهُ سَمِيعًا بَصِيرًا). These verses indicate that the human being was made hearing and seeing, after having passed through certain stages within his mother’s womb. Being “hearing and seeing” here certainly does not refer to the outward faculties of the eye and ear, since all beings possess eyes and ears; yet God Almighty has never employed the terms “hearing” (samīʿ) and “seeing” (baṣīr) with respect to any animal or other being, save for incorporeal beings. The faculty of hearing and the faculty of sight that have been placed within the human being thus constitute a particular designation and a favor exclusive to the human being; this favor, exclusive to the human being, certainly constitutes an honoring. We have stated that whatever is granted to the human being exclusively, as a distinction, constitutes dignity—that is, it means that the human being qua human being is possessed of dignity and honor, is possessed of greatness; this, naturally, carries certain implications. The indication of this verse, unlike the previous one, is not explicit and by direct correspondence. In the previous verse, which stated, “And We have certainly honored the children of Adam” (وَلَقَدْ كَرَّمْنَا بَنِي آدَمَ), the discourse spoke explicitly of honoring; and this dignity, moreover, is actual—the verse does not say that We created the children of Adam in such a way that dignity is merely a capacity within them. Were we to construe “We have honored” (كَرَّمْنَا), in that verse, as referring to a capacity for dignity, or, in other words, to a contingent dignity, this would run contrary to the apparent sense of the verse. The apparent sense of the verse is that God Almighty has actually bestowed dignity upon the human being and has honored him; as for the basis of this honoring, some say it is the subjugation of other beings, and others say it is the intellect—a matter into which we shall not enter here—but the verse explicitly speaks of dignity. In the second verse, however, dignity is not explicitly mentioned; it states, rather, that We created the human being hearing and seeing. Since hearing and sight are among the favors that God has placed exclusively at the human being’s disposal, this constitutes a form of dignity.
Question:
Response: That, too, is a form of dignity … This being hearing and seeing arises from the intellect; these faculties exist so that the human being may engage in reflection; this differs from ordinary seeing and ordinary hearing.
Since, apart from that first verse, the other verses do not, in a similar fashion, indicate inherent dignity by direct correspondence, … we shall endeavor, in the coming session, to set forth all the remaining verses in summary, list-like fashion, and to pass through them; we shall offer further explanation there.